1. Introduction: Administrative Fragmentation
The British occupation of Odisha in 1803 marked a significant turning point, ending a long period of alien rule and introducing a new administrative apparatus. However, the administration was not uniform as Odisha was geographically and politically fragmented into three units:
- The Province of Cuttack was placed under the Bengal Presidency.
- Ganjam and Koraput fell under the Madras Presidency.
- Sambalpur was administered under the Central Provinces.
Initially, the 'Province of Cuttack' was split into Northern and Southern divisions with headquarters at Balasore and Puri (Jagannath) respectively in 1804. By 1816, the headquarters shifted to Cuttack, which became the seat of the Commissioner, the Board of Revenue, and the Provincial Appeal Court by 1818.
2. Land Revenue Systems: Experiments and Policies
Revenue collection was the primary focus of the British administration. Unlike the uniform application of the Permanent Settlement in Bengal, Odisha witnessed the implementation of all three major systems: Zamindari, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari.
A. The Zamindari System (Coastal Odisha)
While the Permanent Settlement had been active in Bengal, it was not introduced in its entirety in Odisha. Instead, the British introduced Temporary Settlements in most areas.
- Short-Term Settlements: Under Regulation XII of 1805, a series of short-term assessments were made (one year, three years, and four years) between 1804 and 1815.
- Exceptions (Permanent Settlement): Certain estates like Darpan, Aul, Kanika, and Kujang were settled in perpetuity. The British intended to treat the Raja of Khurda as a permanent Zamindar, but following his rebellion in 1804, his territory was converted into a government estate.
- Policy Shift: Although promised in 1805, the Permanent Settlement was never fully extended to the temporarily settled areas because the Court of Directors disapproved of it in 1811–12. Consequently, short-term settlements continued until a thirty-year settlement was introduced in 1837.
B. The Ryotwari System (Southern Odisha)
In the 'Ganjam plains' (Chhatrapur, Berhampur, Ghumsar), the Ryotwari system was implemented.
- Revenue was collected directly by Company officials.
- The tenant was given a document called a Patta, which secured their rights to the land.
- Rent was fixed at half of the net production.
C. The Mahalwari System (Western Odisha)
Introduced in Sambalpur, this was a modified version of the Zamindari system where village headmen played a crucial role. The district was divided into:
- Khalsa: Land held by village headmen (Gauntias) directly from the government.
- Zamindari: Feudal organizations headed by Zamindars.
This system recognized tax-free lands such as Bhogra (enjoyed by Gauntias and village servants like Jhankars), Brahmottara (for Brahmins), and Devottara (for religious institutions).
3. Critical Analysis: Economic Impact and Exploitation
The early British revenue administration is often described as ruinous compared to the preceding Maratha rule.
A. Rigidity and High Assessment
The Marathas had allowed for remission or reduction of revenue during natural calamities. In contrast, the British enforced inelastic rules. despite numerous floods and droughts since 1804, collection continued strictly according to Bengal Regulations. S.L. Maddox noted that these settlements were based on "insufficient enquiry".
B. Sale of Estates and Absentee Landlordism
High assessments led to default. In 1807 alone, 266 estates were sold. Estates with a jama (revenue demand) of Rs. 5,000 or more were auctioned in Calcutta. This resulted in:
- The dispossession of indigenous Odia zamindars.
- The entry of Bengali speculators who purchased these estates.
- Absentee Landlordism: The new owners lived away from the estates and appointed agents known as amlas to collect revenue. These amlas exploited the peasants' ignorance of regulations to collect more than the legal rent.
C. Exploitation in Sambalpur
In the Mahalwari areas, tenants faced specific forms of exploitation such as Bethi-Begar (free labour) and the payment of Nazarana (presents) to secure consent for land transfers.
4. Judicial and Police Administration
The introduction of British justice was alien and difficult for the local population to navigate.
- Judicial System: The procedure was described as clumsy, and the people could not follow it. Corruption was prevalent, with laws often tilted in favor of those who could bribe the amlas and pleaders.
- Police: The conquered territories were divided into thanas under darogahs. The police force was characterized as being oppressive to a "greater extent".
5. Conclusion
The British administration brought far-reaching changes to Odisha. While it established a new administrative framework, the revenue policies were largely repressive. The short-term settlements ruined both the tenants and the traditional Zamindars, leading to the rise of absentee landlordism and economic hardship.
