I. The Chalukya Dynasty (c. 1560–1568 A.D.)
1. Origin and Rise
The dynasty established by Mukundadeva is historically described as the Chalukya dynasty. He claimed descent from the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, though it is possible he belonged to the Bahuvalendra or Harichandana feudatory families ruling in the Sarvasidhi taluk of Visakhapatnam,. Mukundadeva rose to prominence by defending the fort of Kataka (Cuttack) during the reign of Govinda Vidyadhara.
2. Mukundadeva (1560–1568 A.D.)
Considered the last Hindu king of Odisha, he is known in tradition as Telinga Mukundadeva.
- Achievements: His kingdom extended from Triveni (Hooghly district) in the north to the Godavari river in the south. He constructed a ghat at Triveni known as Mukunda-ghata and restored peace and prestige to the Gajapati empire.
- Diplomacy and Fall: He engaged in diplomacy with the Mughal Emperor Akbar, exchanging envoys in 1566 A.D. This alliance angered the Sultan of Bengal, Sulaiman Karrani, as Mukundadeva gave shelter to the Sultan's enemy, Ibrahim Sur.
3. The Muslim Conquest (1568 A.D.)
In 1568 A.D., Sulaiman Karrani invaded Odisha. Akbar, engaged in the siege of Chitor, did not assist Mukundadeva. The Bengal army was led by Bayazid and the infamous general Kalapahara.
- Defeat: Mukundadeva was forced to retreat to the fort of Kotsimul. Ramachandra Bhanja, the commandant of Sarangagarh, rebelled and declared himself king. Mukundadeva was killed by Ramachandra Bhanja while trying to suppress this rebellion.
- Kalapahara's Destruction: The general Kalapahara (often identified as a full-blooded Afghan, though folklore suggests he was a Hindu renegade) desecrated the Jagannatha temple. He burned the idols on the banks of the Ganges, though the Brahmas were recovered by a devotee named Bishar Mahanti,.
II. The Bhoi Dynasty of Khurda
1. Foundation
The dynasty was founded by Govinda Vidyadhara in 1541-42 A.D. by usurping the Gajapati throne after killing the sons of Prataparudradeva. The Bhoi dynasty is often viewed critically as a dynasty of "traitors" due to its origins. However, the dynasty found its true political center in Khurda under Ramachandradeva I following the Afghan conquest.
2. Ramachandradeva I (1568–1607 A.D.)
He is the restorer of the Odishan monarchy at Khurda. Originally Ramai Routaraya, the son of Danai Vidyadhara, he proclaimed himself king in 1568 A.D..
- Mughal Recognition: During the Mughal invasion by Raja Mansingh, Ramachandradeva I was recognized as the Raja of Khurda and the superintendent of the Jagannath Temple, despite claims by the sons of Mukundadeva.
- Religious Contributions: He reinstalled the idols of Jagannath, Balabhadra, and Subhadra in the Puri temple and distributed Mahaprasada at the Jaya Vijaya dvara. For this, he is revered as Dvitiya Indradyumna (Second Indradyumna). He also established Brahmin Sasanas like Vira Ramachandrapura.
3. Key Successors and Mughal Conflicts
- Purusottamadeva (1607–1622 A.D.): His reign saw severe Mughal aggression. Keso Das Maru attacked the Puri temple and burnt the chariots, forcing the king to surrender. Later, Hasim Khan and Kalyan Mal continued the oppression.
- Narasimhadeva (1622–1647 A.D.): He faced the invasion of Ahmad Beg but defeated him initially. When Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) revolted and passed through Odisha, Narasimhadeva maintained neutrality. To protect the deities, he transferred the idols to Garah Manitri and had the Jagannath temple plastered. He was eventually killed by Mutquad Khan.
- Ramachandradeva II (1727–1736 A.D.): He faced the invasion of the Nizam of Hyderabad and the bigotry of Taqui Khan, the Naib of Odisha,. To protect the idols, he moved them to Banapur and Tekkali. He was imprisoned in the Barabati fort. Tradition and novels like Neela Saila suggest he converted to Islam and married a Muslim princess, leading to his exclusion from the temple,.
4. The Maratha and British Phase
- Birakishoradeva (1739–1793 A.D.): His long reign saw Odisha become a battleground between the Mughals and Marathas. He lost territories like Banki, Dhenkanal, and Angul to the Marathas. He eventually went mad and killed his own sons,. Culturally, this period saw the rise of Radha-Krishna worship.
- Mukundadeva II (1798–1817 A.D.): The last independent ruler of Khurda. He negotiated with the East India Company to oust the Marathas but was betrayed regarding the return of four Parganas (Lembal, Rahang, Serai, Chabiskud),. His advisor, Jayi Rajaguru, led a rebellion but was captured and hanged. Mukundadeva II was imprisoned and the kingdom of Khurda was annexed in 1817.
III. Administration and Culture
1. Administrative System
The Bhois maintained a feudal structure.
- Hierarchy: The King was supreme, assisted by the Rajaguru (Royal Preceptor), who held immense power. Other officials included the Dalabehera (head of a Jagir/District), Baksi (Military Commander), and Bebarta,.
- Military: The army consisted of Paiks (peasant militia), cavalry, and elephants. They were supported by rent-free jagirs.
- Revenue: Income was derived from land rent (in kind), Nazrana (gifts), and salt exports.
2. Literary Achievements
The Bhoi period was a golden age for Odia literature, while Sanskrit declined slightly.
- Sanskrit: Ramachandradeva I composed Durgotsava Chandrika (disputed authorship) and Sri Krishna Bhakta Vatsalya Charitam. Other works include Haladhara Mishra's Sangita Kalpalata,.
- Odia: This era produced the Riti Yuga (Age of Style).
- Upendra Bhanja (Kavi Samrat) wrote Vaidehisa Vilasa and Lavanyavati.
- Dinakrushna Das wrote Rasakallola.
- Abhimanyu Samantasimhara wrote Vidagdha Chintamani.
- Brajanatha Badajena wrote Samara Taranga (implied via war context) and Chatura Vinoda.
IV. Conclusion
The Chalukya dynasty under Mukundadeva represented the last flicker of independent Hindu imperialism in Odisha, extending the empire to the Godavari. The subsequent Bhoi dynasty, though born of treachery, played a crucial role in preserving the Jagannath culture during the turbulent Afghan, Mughal, and Maratha occupations. Their patronage created a vast literary treasure, making the period culturally significant despite political decline,.
