1. General Causes of Tribal Discontent
The 19th-century uprisings were primarily driven by a strong dislike for the new British rule and its oppressive revenue system. The collection of high rent and threats to the traditional privileges of tribal people created a volatile environment. Furthermore, British policies of intervention in religion and social reforms, alongside massive missionary activities in tribal areas, aggravated the situation.
2. The Ghumsur Uprising (Kandha Rebellion)
The rebellion in Ghumsur was led by the Kandha tribe under two successive leaders: Dora Bisoi and his nephew Chakra Bisoi.
A. Phase I: Leadership of Dora Bisoi
Kamal Lochan Dora Bisoi, a 'Maliah Bisoi' or Head Agent of the Kandhas, was a skilled sword-fighter and the Commander-in-chief of the Ghumsur army.
- Causes:
- Religious Interference: The British suppression of the Meriah (human sacrifice) tradition was seen as a direct attack on Kandha religious faith.
- Economic Exploitation: Land revenue up to 50% was collected forcefully.
- Dynastic Dispute: The British had hostile relations with the Bhanja rulers. Following the death of Dhananjay Bhanja in 1835, the dissolution of the ruling family sparked immediate rebellion, with the Kandhas supporting the royal family.
- Course of Action: Dora Bisoi utilized Guerrilla warfare, hiding in jungles and ghats to launch sudden attacks. The British employed George Edward Russel to suppress the revolt in 1836.
- Betrayal and End: Despite a prize of 5,000 rupees on his head, Dora Bisoi remained elusive until he was betrayed by Raja Somnath Singh of Angul in 1837. Dora received life imprisonment and died in Ooty prison in 1846.
B. Phase II: Leadership of Chakra Bisoi
Following Dora's capture, his nephew Chakra Bisoi revitalized the movement to avenge his uncle.
- Key Factors:
- The interference of Meriah Agents like S.C. Macpherson, who punished Kandhas for violating Meriah laws.
- The installation of Pitambar, the minor son of Dhananjay Bhanja, as the king empowered the rebels.
- Role of Angul: Raja Somnath Singh of Angul, who had earlier betrayed Dora, later assisted Chakra Bisoi. Consequently, the British confiscated Angul in 1848 and sent Somnath Singh to Hazaribagh Jail.
- Expansion and End: Chakra extended the revolt to the Savaras of Parlakhemundi by uniting with Dandasena of Gaiba. Chakra Bisoi was never captured; he likely died in 1856 or abandoned the country.
3. The Bhuyan Uprisings (Keonjhar)
The resistance in Keonjhar occurred in two distinct phases: the Ratna Meli and the Dharani Meli.
A. The Revolt of Ratna Naik (1860s)
Ratna Naik, a leader from Tarpur village, organized the Bhuyans and Juangs against the installation of Dhanurjay Bhanja as king.
- Causes:
- Succession Dispute: After Maharaja Gadadhar Bhanja died, the British (under T.E. Ravenshaw) installed his son Dhanurjay (born of a concubine) instead of Brundaban Bhanja, whom the Chief Queen Bishnupriya supported.
- Autocracy: The new king stripped tribals of their rights and privileges.
- Events: Ratna Naik and the Queen challenged the British decision. The rebels kidnapped the Dewan and cut off postal services between Chaibasa and Cuttack.
- Suppression: The uprising was crushed by Colonel E.T. Dalton and T.E. Ravenshaw. Ratna Naik was executed (capital punishment), and the Queen was exiled to Cuttack.
B. The Revolt of Dharanidhar Naik (1890s)
This uprising was led by Dharanidhar Naik, an educated surveyor who had been trained in Cuttack.
- Causes:
- Forced Labour (Bethi): The Bhuyans were forced to work on the Machha Kandana irrigation dam, a project pushed by the King's advisor Bichitrananda Das.
- Personal Treachery: Dharanidhar was dismissed from service due to a conspiracy by Bichitrananda Das regarding a dispute settlement map.
- Administrative Tyranny: The appointment of Fakir Mohan Senapati as Dewan was initially viewed as a hindrance by the tribals.
- The "Betel Leaf" Stratagem: During the revolt, Fakir Mohan Senapati was captured. He cleverly communicated with British forces by sending a letter with "100 betel leaves and 200 betel nuts," which was a coded message for bullets and sepoys to attack from the north.
- Consequences:
- Dharanidhar surrendered to H. Dowson and was jailed for 7 years.
- Administrative Reform: The British appointed a Political Agent, Ray Bahadur Nanda Kishore Das, to check the King's authority. Development projects were initiated, and the administration became more humane.
4. Conclusion
While the tribal uprisings under leaders like Dora Bisoi, Chakra Bisoi, Ratna Naik, and Dharanidhar Naik failed to oust the British, they significantly shook the administration. These revolts forced the British to reconsider their policies, leading to administrative changes such as the appointment of Political Agents and a shift toward more humane governance in the feudatory states.
