Introduction
By around 600 BC, India witnessed the emergence of several urban centres, marking the beginning of the Second Urbanisation. These cities developed mainly in the Ganga-Yamuna plains and were closely linked with political consolidation and economic expansion.
Body
The rise of cities by 600 BC was facilitated by the use of iron technology, which improved agricultural productivity and generated surplus. This surplus supported craft specialisation, trade and urban life. Important cities such as Rajagriha, Shravasti, Kaushambi, Varanasi, Vaishali and Ujjayini emerged as political, commercial and religious centres.
These cities were often associated with the rise of the Mahajanapadas and served as their capitals. Archaeological evidence such as Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), punch-marked coins and fortifications indicates organised urban planning and active market economy. The presence of guilds reflects growing economic complexity.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the cities that appeared by 600 BC represented a major transformation in Indian history. They laid the foundation for state formation, urban culture and the spread of new religious ideas like Buddhism and Jainism.